FUNCTIONS OF SOIL

Soils have many important functions. Perhaps the best appreciated is the function to support the growth of agricultural and horticultural crops. Soil is the mainstay of agriculture and horticulture, forming as it does the medium in which growth and ultimately the yield of food producing crops occurs. Farmers and gardeners have worked with their soils over many centuries to produce increasing amounts of food to keep pace with the needs of a burgeoning world population. The soil's natural cycles go a long way in ensuring that the soil can provide an adequate physical, chemical and biological medium for crop growth. The farmer and horticulturalist have also become skilled in managing soils so that these natural cycles can be added to as necessary to facilitate adequate soil support and increasing yield to enhance production.

Although it is difficult to rate the importance of the different soil functions, since all are vital to some extent, this function of supporting world agriculture and horticulture is a key one in the preservation and advancement of human life on this planet.

As well as this agricultural and horticultural remit, soil also supports a wide range of trees grown for commercial purposes, e.g. plantations such as forests of commercially grown conifers. Soil type is a fundamental factor in deciding what to grow and where to grow it - or rather optimizing land use patterns.

In addition to supporting world agriculture and horticulture, soil is also essential for maintaining natural and semi-natural vegetation, our forests, our grasslands and the huge breadth of species that occur worldwide. Generally in these situations, the reliance is on the soil's natural cycles to provide the necessary medium for this huge range of vegetation worldwide, in conjunction with the prevailing climate, landscape and the length of time the soils have been in existence. One of the best examples of this soil function is the tropical rain forest where more and more is now being learned of the important soil cycles that maintain this huge ecosystem.

As well as being essential to agriculture, horticulture, forestry and natural and semi-natural systems, soil also plays an important role for our fauna. The soil itself contains million of organisms, the exact nature and role of which we are still trying to determine. Undoubtedly the soil flora and fauna play a vital role in cycles which are fundamental to the ability of the soil to support natural and semi-natural vegetation without additions of fertilizer and other support mechanisms. They breakdown plant debris, take in components from the atmosphere, aerate the soil together with many other functions that make the soil such an important medium.

It is quite staggering how much variety of life exists in soil. A recent key EU document on Thematic Soil Protection identifies that 1 gram of soil in a good condition can contain as many as 600 million bacteria belonging to up to 20,000 species! Even a similar amount of apparently barren desert soils can contain 1 million bacteria from up to 8,000 species. As well as those soil organisms that spend their whole life in the soil, there are also larger organisms that spend a part of their existence in soil but depend on the soil for important parts of their daily life, e.g. badgers, rabbits, prairie gophers, reptiles. Although it is not as well recognized as many of the other soil functions, the soil plays an important role for many birds. Some birds nest on its surface, many birds rely on it for a food supply and a very large number of birds rely on the vegetation for which the soil is responsible. Many birds also nest in burrows in the soil.

Soil is increasingly being recognised as playing a fundamental role in the quality and distribution of our water supply. The soil, coupled with the landscape and its vegetation is responsible for the distribution of all rainwater falling upon it. The nature of the topsoil will influence greatly whether the rainwater will run away across its surface, where it can supplement surface bodies of water, e.g. lakes, rivers, and in extreme situations lead to flash flooding, whether it will infiltrate to become stored in the soil for use by vegetation growing on it and by the soil based organisms, or whether it will flow through the soil to the reach the groundwater and at what rate it will do this. The soil thus holds a key position with respect to our water supply cycle and is now seen as a key element as such by hydrologists.

Related to how water moves through the soil and the absorption properties of soils is the soil's ability to perform an important function in pollution control. The fate and behavior of pesticides in soils has become a key issue in relation to human health, in particular around the world. Soils differ greatly in their ability to manage applied pesticides. Levels of organic matter in the topsoil, soil structure, particularly the presence of prismatic structure with large flow channels, and the texture and adsorption properties of the soils all affect the fate and behavior (and 'attenuation') of pollutants in the soil. In recent decades the problem of managing nitrate levels in water has become a key issue as levels of nitrates in aquifers and surface water bodies continue to increase. Again the soil type and its inherent properties have become important in the attempts to regulate the movement downwards of the nitrate through the soil.

Soil has always been important for the foundation platform of buildings, roads and other communications and never more so. There is an ever increasing need to expand the number of dwellings and the supporting communication network. The problem with this is that buildings and engineering structures such as roads 'seal' the soil and negates the use of land for other purposes in the future. The nature of the soil, be it sandy, silty or clayey, has an important influence on the foundations to the structures and the measures that need to be taken to ensure stability to the structures.

Many people are interested in their origins and how earlier man lived. Soil plays an important part in the preservation of the earth's history. Archaeologists have come to recognize the importance of soils not only as a medium that has preserved evidence of the wares, properties and way of living of previous cultures and generations but also as a crucial component in determining the extent to which artefacts have been able to survive. Many village and town names today reflect the relationship between soil and society in the past - for instance 'Barton-le-Clay' in the UK.

Finally, soils have been recognized as having a key role in modifying and ameliorating the risks and effects of climate change. Soil organic matter is one of the major pools of carbon in the biosphere and is important both as a driver of climatic change and as a response variable to climate change, capable of acting both as a source and sink of carbon. There is significant interest in the fate of soil carbon, particularly the extent to which soils and land use may sequester carbon from the atmosphere, thus reducing CO2 levels in the atmosphere or lose organic carbon to the atmosphere, thus increasing already existing levels in the atmosphere. Soils can also act as a source and sink for nitrous oxides and methane, both also important in creating the greenhouse gas effect

Q:

What is the importance of rocks?

A:

Rocks have a broad range of uses that makes them significantly important to human life. For instance, rocks are used in construction, for manufacturing substances and making medicine and for the production of gas. Rocks are also extremely vital to scientists as they provide clues about the Earth’s history.

Rocks can broadly be classified into three categories: sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks. These classes, which are based on the rock's origin, determine the structure and use of the rock.  Rocks are important in the making of many objects, such as plates, jewelry and toothpaste. Most houses are also built of materials obtained from rocks.

Some of the most valuable rocks used in the manufacturing of items include graphite, slate, limestone, gypsum and pyrite. These types of rocks help in the production of stationery and the building of houses. Coal, which is an organic rock made mainly from plant materials, has various uses. It can be used in the production of gas, and its residue is used in making plastics and several synthetic materials.

Rock mining provides employment opportunities for casual workers, especially in places where formal jobs are difficult to find. Rocks contribute greatly to the economy of a country or region where they are found. Rocks are also used in the medicine industry. Bismuth is helpful for people with stomach upsets, while silver is used in the manufacturing of dental equipment.

Importance and Uses of Rocks

1.  Building Stones

2.  Machines & Tools

3.  Artifacts

4. Consumables & Processes

5.  Decorations

6.  Jewellery

We use things made from rocks and minerals every day. If something doesn't come from a plant or an animal, it has to be mined. According to the Mineral Information Institute, it is estimated that in a lifetime, A person living in North America will use up the following quantity of rocks and minerals Lead - 365 kg Aluminum - 1633 kg, Zinc - 340 kg, Iron - 14 863 kg, copper - 680 kg, clays - 12 068 kg, salt - 12 824 kg stone, sand, gravel & cement - 562-77kg/Very long ago, our ancestors used rocks for tools. This was known as the Stone Age. This period of human development lasted a long time. Obsidian and flint were used for knives and spears. River rocks were used to break other things. Caves were used as places to live and rocks and boulders were used to sit on and to build fire pits. Depending on what part of the world people lived in, this period was then followed by the Copper Age when people discovered how to smelt (melt using high heat) copper ore. During this time, cities were being built and building stones were being used a lot. This was then followed by the Bronze Age about 6,000 years ago. During this time, people learned how to mix minerals to produce metals like copper, bronze, lead and tin. This period was then followed by the Iron Age about 3,000 years ago. Iron is very strong and made very good and long lasting tools. These tools also meant that stone could be shaped more easily and many empires built buildings, structures and roads that still can be seen today. Since that time period, people have built many cities and used minerals extensively. In Modern Times, since about 1700 CE we have been using rocks and minerals at an ever increasing rate as we build machines, cities and consume a great number of "things" in a lifetime.

THE MANIFEST FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION

Education is one element of society that has many functions. Some of the functions are readily observable even by a woman or stone crusher in the village and yet some these need a student working on her assignment to see and understand them. When students pass through these institutions of learning they are subjected to many experiences. The output of such experiences results into a variety of qualities or values, some of which are clear and obvious to understand while others are not.

 In this assignment effort will be made to discuss the manifest functions of Education and show how a Zambian teacher can help to achieve the function? First of all, to be manifest means to be clear or to be observable enough to be grasped. The manifest functions of university education are to use your education in order to advance your career. The latent function of university education is to culture you. It allows you to become more sophisticated and mature. Manifest functions are Robert Merton's terms for the consequences of any social action/institution. A manifest function is the conscious, deliberate result.

There are several major manifest functions associated with education. The first is socialization. Beginning from kindergarten, students are taught to practice various societal roles.  Schools as socialization agencies teach children how to get along with others and prepare them for adult economic roles. Indeed, it seems that schools have taken on this responsibility aggressively. This socialization also involves learning the rules and norms of the society as a whole. A manifest function is the conscious, deliberate and intentional result. Kendall contends that from kindergarten through college schools teach students the student roles, specific academic subjects and political socialization, Kendall (1998). Socialization enables students to be taught skills, social control, respect as well as reliability.So that the skills and knowledge can be applied in future for the benefit of the individual and society at large. Therefore the school with its education happens to be an agent of change. As a matter of fact education is the social institution that is responsible for transmitting knowledge, skills and cultural values in a formally organized structure. Actually schools are sources of change and innovation.

Since culture is increasingly diverse, students may learn a variety of cultural norms. School systems also transmit the core values of their particular nations through manifest functions like social control. One of the roles of schools is to teach students conformity to law and respect for authority. Obviously, such respect, given to teachers and administrators, will help a student navigate the school environment. This function also prepares students to enter the workplace and the world at large, where they will continue to be subject to people who have authority over them. Fulfillment of this function rests primarily with classroom teachers and instructors who are with students all day.Godofsky, Cliff andCarl (2011) here the function is to prepare the student for integration into society and become useful members of society instead of being useless misfits.

Education also provides one of the major methods used by people for upward social mobility. This function is referred to as social placement. College and graduate schools are viewed as vehicles for moving students closer to the careers that will give them the finance and securities they seek. As a result, college students are often more motivated to study areas that they believe will be advantageous on the social ladder. A student might value business courses over teacher education courses because she sees business classes as being stronger vehicle for financial success.

The educational system, especially as experienced on various university campuses, has traditionally provided a place for students to learn about various social issues. There is ample opportunity for social and political advocacy, as well as the ability to develop tolerance to the many views represented on campus.Functionalists recognize other ways that schools educate and help in the enculturation of students. One of the most important values in the west is that students learn habits of individualism—the valuing of the individual over the value of groups or society as a whole. In countries such as Japan and China, where the good of the group is valued over the rights of the individual, students do not learn as they do in the United States that the highest rewards go to the “best” individual in academics as well as athletics. One of the roles of schools in the Zambian is fostering self-esteem; conversely, schools in Japan focus on fostering social esteem—the honoring of the group over the individual argues the scholar; Mansfield, (2001).

In Zambian schools, teachers also fill the role of preparing students for competition in life. By virtue of being teachers they become specialist in performing the functions of education. The competition during athletics is the analogue for community competition and consequently there is integration into the society but even in the classroom students compete against one another academically. Schools also do a great deal by transmitting patriotism, mannerism, morality and orderliness to the students. Students sing the national anthem each Monday and take history classes where they learn about national heroes and the nation’s past. Clearly it can be seen that school teachers provide an opportunity in which the students socialize.  After all, schools are responsible for identifying the most qualified persons to fill the advanced positions of society. The school system determines which people are to become university lecturers or accountants and the  like.  So teacher administrators and the rest should endeavor to channel students into programs according to their abilities.This is in that the students can be well qualified for their various jobs in future. Kendall cements by saying that ‘graduates receive appropriate credentials for entering the paid work’, Kandall (1998:276)

Another role of schools, according to functionalist theory, is that of sorting, or classifying students based on academic merit or potential leading to social placement. The most capable students are identified early in schools through testing and classroom achievements. Such students are placed in accelerated programs in anticipation of successful college attendance, argues Mansfield (2001).

Conflict theorists point to tracking, a formalized sorting system that places students on “tracks” (advanced versus low achievers) that perpetuate inequalities. While educators may believe that students do better in tracked classes because they are with students of similar ability and may have access to more individual attention from teachers, conflict theorists feel that tracking leads to self-fulfilling prophecies in which students live up (or down) to teacher and societal expectations.To conflict theorists, schools play the role of training working class students to accept and retain their position as lower members of society. They argue that this role is fulfilled through the disparity of resources available to students in richer and poorer neighborhoods as well as through testing,Lauen and Tyson (2008).

IQ tests have been attacked for being biased—for testing cultural knowledge rather than actual intelligence. For example, a test item may ask students what instruments belong to an orchestra. To correctly answer this question requires certain cultural knowledge—knowledge most often held by more affluent people who typically have more exposure to orchestral music. Though experts in testing claim that bias has been eliminated from tests, conflict theorists maintain that this is impossible. These tests, to conflict theorists, are another way in which education does not provide opportunities, but instead maintains an established configuration of prophecyMerton (1968).In his book, High School Confidential, Jeremy Iverson details his experience as a Stanford graduate posing as a student at a California high school. One of the problems he identifies in his research is that of teachers applying labels that students are never able to lose. One teacher told him, without knowing he was a bright graduate of a top university that he would never amount to anything (Iverson 2006). Iverson obviously didn’t take this teacher’s false assessment to heart. But when an actual 17-year-old student hears this from a person with authority over her, it’s no wonder that the student might begin to “live down to” that label. Instead of being who labels her student the teacher should give credit where it is worth and always give the students a positive picture thereby creating the atmosphere ‘the sky is the limit’. The above is how a Zambian teacher can help to achieve manifest functions of education.

With the above, it can be summarized by saying that: starting from a day care teacher, through a secondary school teacher to a university professor, all have a noble and great task of making sure that education through various schools is able to perform the manifest functions. These include social control, social placement, transmission of culture, socialization and many others. Teachers should help the education system so that each individual who passes through school can be well groomed and be placed where his credentials and abilities allow him or her with regards to configurations on the labor market. As a result of this, there will be private returns and social benefits for both the individuals and the society respectively.

REFERENCES

Godofsky Jessica, Cliff Zukin and Carl Van Horn (2011)Unfulfilled Expectations:Recent College Graduates Struggle in a Troubled Economy. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University.

Iverson Jeremy (2006)High School Confidential. New York: Atria.

Kendall Diana (1998) Social Problems in a diverse Society.Boston, Allyn and Bacon Publishers.

Lauen Douglas Lee and Karolyn Tyson(2008). Perspectives from the Disciplines:Sociological Contribution to Education Policy Research and Debate.Area Handbookon Education Policy Research.

Mansfield Harvey. C (2001)Grade Inflation: It’s Time to Face the Facts.The Chronicleof Higher Education 47(30).

Merton Robert. K (1968)Social Theory and Social Structure. New York, Free Press.